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Living space: Differences between generations
For several decades, the amount of living space per capita in Germany has been rising steadily. The later a person is born, the more living space they have at their disposal. For example, at the same age, people born in 1990 live in an average of 10 percent more living space than those born in 1970.
This is not because people have greater wealth. Rather, expectations regarding the size of one’s own living space have increased. At the same time, people over the age of 61 are increasingly stating that their living space is too large. This is shown by data from the “Leben in Deutschland” study since the mid-2000s.
It is questionable whether society can meet these increased expectations. If this is a case of “overconsumption” of living space, regulatory measures could help. Low-income households are specifically suffering from the significant increase in housing costs. Reversing this trend could ease the situation.Further information
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![Mehrgenerationenfamilie sitzt an einem Tisch]()
Refugee migration and mental health of people in the host country
Since the 1990s, Germany has experienced two major waves of refugee migration (1991–1993 and 2015–2016) triggered by armed conflicts and humanitarian crises. With the influx of many asylum seekers, social debates intensified and critical attitudes toward migration became the focus of greater attention in the media and among the general public.
What are the psychological consequences of this public presence of the issue? Can negative attitudes toward asylum seekers act as stressors and affect the mental health of the population? Some people report concerns about their economic situation, fears of job loss, and cultural changes.
At first glance, such a connection seems obvious. However, to measure the direct psychological consequences, researchers examined people’s mental health in relation to their geographical proximity to asylum seekers in their place of residence. The analysis is based on a combination of survey data from the “Leben in Deutschland” study, geographical information at the district level, and health data from health insurance companies.
Das Ergebnis: Es finden sich bislang keine Hinweise darauf, dass sich die mentale Gesundheit der Bevölkerung durch die Nähe zu Asylsuchenden verändert. Die verstärkte Fluchtmigration löst demnach keine psychologischen Verschlechterungen im Gastland aus.Further information
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Refugees and unemployed individuals are particularly vulnerable to poverty
How high is wage and income inequality, and how high is the risk of poverty for certain groups in society? The study “Leben in Deutschland” provides an important basis for answering these questions.
A recent analysis shows that high inflation in recent years has reduced both real wages and disposable income—for the first time since 2013. The previously steady increase has slowed. In addition, inequality in hourly wages has returned to a level last seen at the end of the 1990s. The previously observed continuous increase in net income has also recently stalled.
Certain groups of people remain at high risk of poverty, including refugees and the unemployed. However, as the integration of refugees into the labor market is showing a positive trend, the risk of poverty among this group could soon decline.Further information
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![Eine Ältere und eine jüngere Frau sitzen auf dem Sofa und lesen Zeitung]()
Care is largely organized privately
Only 14 percent of people in need of care in Germany are currently cared for in a professional care facility, while 86 percent are cared for in private households. How is this “informal care” organized?
The “Life in Germany” study shows that informal care is more often provided outside the home than within it, and close to the caregiver’s place of residence. As a rule, care is provided by relatives and friends. In most cases, women are the primary caregivers.
People who care for someone outside their household are on average 54 years old, employed, and have a slightly higher level of education than those who provide care within their own household. The latter are often older people who care for their partners at home.
It is foreseeable that the number of people in need of care will continue to rise – at the same time, the care sector is not keeping pace with this increase. In addition, the many informal carers are more often exposed to high financial burdens than people without care responsibilities.Further information
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Growing willingness to naturalize
How strong are refugees’ intentions to become naturalized? Researchers have evaluated data from the “Life in Germany” study on people who fled to Germany between 2013 and 2019. Their countries of origin are Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, Eritrea, Somalia, and Iran.
The evaluation shows that over 98 percent have either applied for naturalization, are already naturalized, or intend to do so. The proportion of naturalized refugees rose significantly between 2021 and 2023 (from 2.1 to 7.5 percent). At the same time, the proportion of those who have applied for naturalization rose from 7.3 to 25.7 percent. The naturalization rate is particularly high among Syrian refugees: 13.1 percent of them had already been naturalized by 2023.
What factors favor naturalization? The study data also provides insight into this: above all, good German language skills significantly increase the chances.Further information
Handelsblatt: Forscher rechnet mit mehr Einbürgerungsanträgen
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![Zwei Kollegen stehen im Flur mit Laptop und Tasse]()
Refugees: Positive trend on the labor market
Refugees who came to Germany in 2015 are well integrated into the labor market. This positive picture is painted by data from the study “Living in Germany”: nine years after their arrival in Germany, 64 percent of adult refugees are in dependent employment, and the trend is rising. This figure is thus moving ever closer to the employment rate for the population as a whole, which is around 70 percent.
Despite this upward trend, there are still some challenges for refugees, such as the low labor force participation of women and older people. Career advancement opportunities and earnings levels also have room for improvement.Further information
Die Zeit: So viele der Geflüchteten von 2015 haben heute einen Job (für Abonnent*innen)
Der Spiegel: 64 Prozent der 2015 nach Deutschland Geflüchteten haben heute einen Job
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Socially disadvantaged diabetics
Data from the “Living in Germany” study show that only 58 percent of people with diabetes participate in working life. In contrast, the figure for people without diabetes is 82 percent. In addition, diabetics retire earlier on average.
Researchers have now examined the situation of people with low socioeconomic status, such as those with low levels of education or low employment and income. The result: not only are these people statistically more likely to have diabetes, but they are also disadvantaged in other ways. For diabetics with low socioeconomic status, the disease has far-reaching financial disadvantages, primarily due to greater reductions in pension entitlements and the resulting potential poverty in old age. The disease has been shown to lead to a significant reduction in productivity, especially among women.Further information
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![Vater mit Kind im Vordergrund und Mutter mit Säugling im Hintergrund]()
Parental support influences personality
If parents have more than one child, the level of support, i.e., the amount of time spent or the parenting style, may differ for each sibling. How does this affect the children’s personalities? Data from “Life in Germany” shows that key personality traits vary among siblings who have received different levels of support from their parents. Birth order does not play a significant role in this.
Incidentally, the effect of parental influence weakens in early adulthood.Further information
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![Ein glückliches Paar, das gemeinsam ein Haus einrichtet.]()
Greater satisfaction through living together
When people move in together as a couple, they are much happier in the first year after doing so. This is the finding of an analysis of data from the “Leben in Deutschland” study. From the second year onwards, there is no further increase in their happiness—but the values are still higher than before they moved in together.
In the short and medium term, living together makes people happier. However, it has no effect on partners who were already in a relationship a year before moving in together. They had already achieved a higher level of satisfaction by entering into the relationship. The researchers assume that the central emotional turning point is the relationship itself and that living together merely further consolidates well-being.
Further information
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The “active pension” and its consequences
In future, pensioners will be able to earn up to 2,000 euros a month via the so-called “active pension.” This plan, by the German government, will offer tax-free income, even if the retiree already receives an old-age pension. Researchers have now taken a closer look at the consequences of this policy.
Until now, gainful employment beyond a “minijob” was not very attractive for pensioners. The aim of the active pension is to promote employment in old age and to make the transition between employment and retirement more flexible. The study shows that 234,000 taxpayers could claim an active pension in the future. However, those with a high total income, whose wage income is subject to high marginal tax rates and who have other income, e.g., from assets, will benefit in particular. For this reason, the researchers believe that inequality in society could increase further. Not all older people are able to continue working – many are hindered by care responsibilities or their own health impairments.Further information
Bach, S., Buslei, H., Geyer, J., Pieper, J.: Aktivrente entlastet vor allem besserverdienende Rentner*innen – mit unsicheren Beschäftigungseffekten. In: DIW Wochenbericht 25/2025, S. 395-402. (available in German only)
Süddeutsche Zeitung (17.06.2025): Kann die „Aktivrente“ halten, was sie verspricht? (available in German only)
Rheinische Post (18.06.2025): „Aktivrente entlastet vor allem Besserverdienende“ (available in German only)
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Whether we own a house depends on our parents
The proportion of homeowners in Germany is very low compared to other OECD countries. One thing is certain: people whose parents belong to a higher social class are more likely to become homeowners than those whose parents are from a lower social class. This favors further inequalities, especially in the development of wealth.
Based on data from “Living in Germany,” researchers investigated the role played by the transfer of wealth to the younger generation; for example, in the form of inheritances and gifts. The result: these transfers promote home ownership to a high degree, often within just one year. Even if it is only expected that a transfer of parental wealth is imminent in the future, home ownership becomes significantly more likely.Further information
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Pilot study on Unconditional Basic Income
The debate about an Unconditional Basic Income (UBI) has been polarizing for years: What would it mean for the economy, politics, and society if everyone received a fixed amount every month, regardless of whether they were employed or not?
Researchers have gathered insightful scientific findings on the topic with a field study as part of the “Living in Germany” study: 107 people received 1,200 euros a month for three years. Their subsequent behavior was studied by a team of researchers. The result: contrary to the warnings of critics, the recipients of the money did not withdraw from the labor market at all; instead, they largely continued to work as before. A third of the cash payments were saved, half went towards consumption. Eight percent was spent on friends and relatives or for charitable purposes.
The average satisfaction of the study participants with their lives increased significantly – an effect that persisted throughout the course of the study. Basic income has the potential to trigger long-term positive effects on mental health and well-being, according to the study authors. In turn, this could have a positive impact on labor market behavior, ultimately even increasing productivity.Further information
Bohmann, S., Fiedler, S., Kasy, M., Schupp, J., Schwerter, F.: Pilotprojekt Grundeinkommen: kein Rückzug vom Arbeitsmarkt, aber bessere mentale Gesundheit. DIW-Wochenbericht 15/2025, S. 221-229. (available in German only)
Doku-Reihe „Der große Traum: Geld für alle“ im rbb (available in German only)
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Fewer people in the low-wage sector, risk of poverty decreases
The low-wage sector in Germany continues to shrink. This is the result of a recent analysis of gross hourly wages and net household incomes using “Living in Germany” study data. In 2022, only 18.5 percent of all employees were primarily employed in the low-wage sector – the lowest figure since the turn of the millennium. In eastern Germany, the proportion fell by 14 percentage points to 24 percent.
The rapid rise in inflation has caused gross hourly wages to fall overall, but not in the low-wage sector. In 2022, the low-wage threshold was 13.60 euros gross per hour. According to study author Markus M. Grabka (a SOEP researcher), the risk of poverty has also continued to fall, particularly in eastern Germany and among single parents.Further information
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Social cohesion helps parents through a pandemic
During the Covid-19 pandemic, parental mental health suffered particularly badly. Researchers have now found that parents fared better if they rated the social cohesion in their environment as strong during the pandemic. Not only were they less affected by pandemic stress, but the risk of depression and other mental illnesses decreased. This was shown by analyses using data from the “Living in Germany” study.
However, if parents already rated social cohesion as high before the pandemic, this did not significantly protect them from stress during the pandemic. Thus, the authors recommend taking measures to strengthen social cohesion, especially during a pandemic, in order to relieve parents in particular.Further information
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Depression: Factors leading to a diagnosis
What factors determine whether people with depressive symptoms receive a corresponding diagnosis? Researchers investigated this using “Living in Germany” study data.
They found that a formal diagnosis is more likely among those with poorer physical and mental health, women, the elderly, the unemployed, and those with neuroses. One explanation is that these groups – especially people with existing health impairments – go to the doctor more frequently and, thus, are more likely to be diagnosed. The situation is different for men, people with good physical and mental health, and those with stable employment. They are less likely to be diagnosed with depression.
According to the researchers, women are more likely to seek medical help after symptoms occur than men. This is due to gender-specific attitudes toward mental illness. However, some research results also indicate that doctors are more likely to diagnose depression in women and other typical at risk groups than in men.Further information
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Having children does not make you happier
Parenthood is seen by society as a central part of a fulfilled and satisfied life. But do parents actually experience greater life satisfaction than people without children? Using “Life in Germany” survey data, researchers concluded that this question cannot be answered affirmatively, at least not for Germany. Reviewing developments over the entire life course of people with and without children shows that general life satisfaction, loneliness, and job satisfaction remain equally stable beyond middle age for both groups.
Thus, people without children do not feel lonelier than people with children. Overall, the mental health of people without children is more stable over the course of their lives. People with children experience stronger and more frequent short-term emotional upheavals, both negative and positive, especially during the child-rearing years.Further information
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![Eine Frau, die auf einer Veranda vor einem Haus steht.]()
How wealth influences women’s family planning
To what extent does wealth influence key life decisions such as cohabitation or marriage? A recent analysis of data from the “Leben in Deutschland” study reveals that home ownership in particular is a decisive factor in family planning for people in Germany.
For women, it is clear that, if they own a house or apartment, they are way more likely to move in with their partner and get married. This effect isn’t as strong when it comes to shared home ownership. This shows that women see their own financial independence as key to starting a family.Further information
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![Ein Mann, mit den Häden in den Taschen in einem Tunnel]()
Almost one third of refugees suffer from loneliness
About 27 percent of refugees in Germany say they often or very often feel lonely. They are also more likely to exhibit personality traits such as anxiety than other refugees.
An analysis of data from the “Leben in Deutschland” study reveals that the majority of refugees affected live in shared accommodation and feel less welcome than those who say they do not feel lonely. Those who live with a partner and outside of shared accommodation tend to feel less lonely. Those who take advantage of counseling services or language courses also report feelings of loneliness less frequently.
In addition, experiences on the way to Germany play a role: if refugees have experienced sexual harassment, physical violence, extortion, or imprisonment, they are more severely affected by loneliness.Further information
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![Mann mit dunkler Hautfarbe trägt Arbeitsschutzkleidung und steht hinter einer Zementmischmaschine]()
Employment increases with length of stay
While few refugees are employed shortly after arriving in Germany, after eight years, 67 percent are employed. There are major differences between men and women: The rate for men is 86 percent, which is even higher than the average rate for the male population in Germany (81 percent). For female refugees, on the other hand, it is 33%.
Overall, refugees often face major challenges when integrating into the labor market, for example due to employment bans or restrictions on their choice of place of residence and freedom of movement. Analyses based on study data from “Living in Germany” show that removing these obstacles promotes employment: An acceleration of asylum procedures and a gradual reduction in the time limits for employment bans go hand in hand with an increase in employment rates.Further information
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Ukrainian refugees: high psychological strain
Our study shows that Ukrainian refugees are more likely to suffer from mental stress than the general population. About 19 percent reported symptoms of depression and 14 percent reported symptoms of an anxiety disorder in 2023. Women report depressive symptoms and/or anxiety disorders more frequently than men. When comparing age groups, it is also noticeable that these symptoms are particularly common among 18 to 29-year-olds.
Ukrainians have the same right to healthcare in Germany as German nationals. However, language barriers and the complexity of the German healthcare system can make it difficult to receive care for mental illnesses. New concepts such as health guides or support groups can help people with mental health problems.Further information
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